Gene regulation in Bacteroides fragilis: adaptive control in a dynamic host environment

Abstract

Bacteroides fragilis occupies a dynamic position within the human gut. Though it comprises a relatively minor fraction of the gut microbiota, it is dispropor￾tionately enriched at extraintestinal sites of infection. This ability to survive in contrast￾ing host environments pivots on a regulatory framework that is both modular and highly plastic. Rather than deploying a suite of hierarchical global regulators, B. fragilis employs numerous operon-embedded transcriptional switches, including site-specific DNA inversions, phase-variable epigenetic systems, extracytoplasmic function sigma/ anti-sigma factor pairs, and hybrid two-component systems. These networks are further complemented by cis-regulatory elongation checkpoints and post-transcrip￾tional control by small RNAs. This review explores the full spectrum of these regula￾tory mechanisms, highlighting how they facilitate niche adaptation, surface variation, immune evasion, and metabolic prioritization. It also explores intraspecies variation focusing on glycan metabolism, antibiotic resistance, and virulence. Additionally, it outlines recombination-driven regulation, alongside extracytoplasmic function sigma factor diversification, flexible promoter architecture, and elongation checkpoints, each contributing to the evolution of transcriptional control in B. fragilis. Finally, it outlines unanswered questions, including the largely unexplored sRNA regulon, the coordination of DNA inversions, elongation control, and phase-variable methylation, and proposes experimental strategies to investigate the integration of these regulatory systems during environmental transitions. Taken together, B. fragilis emerges as a model bacterium for studying decentralized gene regulation in complex microbial ecosystems, with implications for both microbial ecology and therapeutic targeting of the gut microbiota.